Preface xiii Short biographies xv 1 Introduction 1 Christos A. Frangopoulos 1.1 Definition of cogeneration 1 1.2 Historical development of cogeneration 1 1.3 Structure of the text 2 References 4 2 Energy use in the world and the benefits of cogeneration 5 Jacob Klimstra 2.1 Energy and the global economy 5 2.1.1 Introduction 5 2.1.2 The growth pattern in energy use 5 2.2 Fuel use for electricity generation, heating, transportation and industrial processes 8 2.3 Fuel resources and depletion 10 2.4 Energy savings potential with cogeneration 13 2.5 Capabilities for back-up for renewables 14 Acronyms 15 References 16 Further Reading 16 3 Cogeneration technologies 17 Jacob Klimstra 3.1 Introduction 17 3.2 Gas-turbine-based cogeneration systems 18 3.2.1 The gas turbine concept and its fuel efficiency 18 3.2.2 Exhaust gas emissions limits for gas turbines 20 3.2.3 Controllability of the power and heat output 21 3.2.4 Maintenance aspects 24 3.2.5 The effect of ambient conditions on gas turbine performance 24 3.2.6 Special designs 25 3.3 Reciprocating internal combustion-engine-based cogeneration systems 26 3.3.1 The background and basic concept 26 3.3.2 The practical gas engine 28 3.3.3 The fuel efficiency 29 3.3.4 The heat sources 32 3.3.5 Controllability of the electricity and heat output 34 3.3.6 Fuel–air mixture preparation and control 36 3.3.7 Maintenance aspects 38 3.3.8 Exhaust gas emissions limits for reciprocating engines 39 3.3.9 Response time to required load changes 39 3.4 Fuel-cell-based cogeneration systems 40 3.4.1 The concept of a fuel cell 40 3.4.2 The phosphoric acid fuel cell 42 3.4.3 The molten carbonate fuel cell 42 3.4.4 The solid oxide fuel cell 42 3.5 Rankine and combined cycle cogeneration systems 43 3.5.1 General overview 43 3.5.2 Steam-based cogeneration 43 3.5.3 The organic Rankine cycle 44 3.6 Miscellaneous technologies with minor potential for cogeneration 45 3.6.1 Thermo-electric generators 45 3.6.2 Thermo-photo-voltaic generators 45 3.6.3 Thermo-ionic converters 45 3.6.4 Stirling engines 46 References 46 4 Electrical engineering aspects 49 Mats O¨stman 4.1 Cogeneration plant electrical system overview 49 4.1.1 Cogeneration plant electrical system 49 4.1.2 Grid connection technologies 49 4.2 Types of generators 51 4.2.1 The synchronous generator 51 4.2.2 The asynchronous generator 55 4.2.3 The power-converter system 58 4.2.4 Summary of electrical power conversion 61 4.3 Network stability considerations 61 4.3.1 The challenge of the future 61 4.3.2 The role of inertia in a power system 62 4.3.3 The role of a cogeneration unit in island operation 62 4.4 Cogeneration unit active power control 64 4.4.1 General overview 64 4.4.2 Active power control strategies 65 4.4.3 Traditional droop control 65 4.4.4 Fixed output control 66 4.4.5 Fixed output control with frequency bias 67 4.4.6 Isochronous control 68 4.4.7 Conclusion on active power control strategies 69 4.5 Cogeneration unit reactive power control strategies 69 4.5.1 General overview 69 4.5.2 Reactive power control strategies 69 4.5.3 Voltage droop control 70 4.5.4 Power factor control 71 4.5.5 Constant reactive power control 72 4.5.6 Conclusion on reactive power control strategies 72 Acronyms 72 References 73 5 Applications of cogeneration 75 Jacob Klimstra 5.1 Introduction to applications of cogeneration 75 5.2 Cogeneration in the utility sector 75 5.3 Cogeneration in the industrial sector 77 5.3.1 Cogeneration for a paper mill 78 5.3.2 Cogeneration in the dairy and bakery industry 78 5.3.3 Cogeneration in the beer brewery industry 79 5.3.4 Cogeneration in a sewage sludge incineration plant 80 5.4 Cogeneration in the commercial sector 81 5.4.1 Cogeneration in hotels 81 5.4.2 Cogeneration in hospitals 82 5.4.3 Cogeneration for data centres 83 5.5 Cogeneration in the agricultural sector 84 5.5.1 Greenhouse applications 84 5.5.2 Product drying 85 5.6 Cogeneration in combination with renewable energy 85 5.7 Cogeneration and desalination 86 References 87 6 Fuels for cogeneration systems 89 Jacob Klimstra 6.1 Introduction 89 6.2 Types and properties of fuels 89 6.2.1 Gaseous fuels 89 6.2.2 Liquid fuels 94 6.2.3 Solid fuels 96 6.3 Fuel- and combustion-related emissions 98 6.3.1 Greenhouse gas emissions 99 6.3.2 NOx emissions 100 6.3.3 SO2 emissions 101 6.3.4 CO, aldehydes and ash emissions 102 Acronyms 103 References 103 7 Thermodynamic analysis 105 Christos A. Frangopoulos 7.1 Introduction to thermodynamic analysis of cogeneration systems 105 7.2 Indexes of thermodynamic performance 105 7.2.1 Efficiencies based on energy 106 7.2.2 Efficiencies based on exergy 110 7.2.3 Electricity to heat ratio 111 7.2.4 Primary energy savings 112 7.3 Procedure for determination of electricity cogenerated with useful heat 120 7.3.1 What is the issue? 120 7.3.2 Distinction between cogeneration systems without loss and with loss of work production due to useful heat production 120 7.3.3 Splitting the cogeneration unit in CHP and non-CHP parts 121 7.3.4 Procedure to calculate the cogenerated electricity and related parameters 122 Nomenclature 128 Appendix 7.A Fundamentals of exergy 130 7.A.1 Definition of exergy 130 7.A.2 Exergy of work and heat 131 7.A.3 Exergy of a closed system 131 7.A.4 Flow exergy 132 7.A.5 Physical flow exergy of ideal gas and of mixture of ideal gases 133 7.A.6 Physical flow exergy of incompressible fluids 133 Appendix 7.B Power-to-heat ratio in full cogeneration mode 134 References 135 Further Reading 136 8 Environmental impacts of cogeneration 137 Wojciech Stanek and Lucyna Czarnowska 8.1 Introduction 137 8.2 Definitions and emissions impact categories 138 8.3 Effects on air quality 139 8.3.1 Irreversibility, fuel use, and emissions 140 8.3.2 Estimation of direct gaseous emissions 142 8.3.3 Local and global balance of direct gaseous emissions 146 8.3.4 The various substances that affect global warming 148 8.3.5 Allocation of fuel and emissions of a cogeneration system to its products 149 8.3.6 Cumulative emissions—the case of greenhouse gases 154 8.3.7 Dispersion and impacts of pollutants on the environment and the society—the external environmental cost 157 8.3.8 Thermo-ecological cost 160 8.3.9 Thermo-ecological indicators of environmental benefits and results for selected bio-CHPs 165 8.4 Effects on water and soil quality 167 8.4.1 Effects on water quantity and quality 167 8.4.2 Effects on soil and water quality caused by the emissions 168 8.5 Legal emission limits and emission trading 170 8.6 Noise and vibration 173 References 174 9 Reliability and availability 179 Jacob Klimstra 9.1 Introduction 179 9.2 Definitions 180 9.2.1 Component reliability 180 9.2.2 Operational availability 180 9.2.3 System reliability 181 9.3 Maintenance philosophies 182 9.4 Redundancy 184 References 188 Further Reading 188 10 Economic analysis of cogeneration systems 191 Christos A. Frangopoulos 10.1 Introduction to economic analysis of cogeneration systems 191 10.2 Types of costs 191 10.2.1 Installed capital cost 191 10.2.2 Operation and maintenance costs 195 10.3 Definition of economic parameters 198 10.3.1 Interest and interest rate 198 10.3.2 Price index 199 10.3.3 Inflation and inflation rate 199 10.3.4 Life cycle and life-cycle cost 200 10.3.5 Estimation of the value of money in time 201 10.4 Measures of economic performance 206 10.4.1 Net present value of the investment 206 10.4.2 Net present cost and present worth cost 207 10.4.3 Internal rate of return 207 10.4.4 Payback period 208 10.5 Procedure for economic analysis of cogeneration systems 209 10.5.1 Estimation of the initial cash flow (F0) 210 10.5.2 Estimation of the net cash flow for the years of analysis (Fn, n 1) 210 10.6 Costing of thermal and electrical and/or mechanical energy 214 10.6.1 Statement of the problem 214 10.6.2 Methods of cost allocation 215 10.7 Internalization of external environmental costs and their effect on the economic performance of cogeneration systems 217 10.7.1 Introductory remarks and definitions 217 10.7.2 Evaluation and internalization of external environmental costs 217 10.8 Examples of economic analysis of cogeneration systems 218 Nomenclature 229 References 231 Further Reading 232 11 Regulatory and legal framework of cogeneration 233 Costas G. Theofylaktos 11.1 Introduction 233 11.2 European policy on energy efficiency and on cogeneration 234 11.2.1 The general framework 234 11.2.2 Examples of policy development in European countries 241 11.3 Regulatory and legal framework in countries outside Europe 245 11.3.1 Regulatory and legal framework in the United States of America 245 11.3.2 Policy development of cogeneration in PR of China 247 11.3.3 Policy development of cogeneration in Japan 248 11.4 Impact of electricity and gas liberalisation on cogeneration 250 11.4.1 Introduction to EU electricity and gas liberalisation 250 11.4.2 EU energy liberalisation and its impact on cogeneration 252 11.5 Conclusions 254 Acronyms 255 References 256 12 Selection, integration and operation of cogeneration systems 259 Jacob Klimstra 12.1 Procedure for system selection and design 259 12.1.1 Determination of the electricity and heat demand 259 12.1.2 Measurement equipment for determining the energy flows 261 12.1.3 Fuel options 262 12.2 Integration of cogeneration in heat supply systems 262 12.2.1 Matching size and demand 263 12.2.2 Hydraulic integration 264 12.3 Summary of possible integration problems 271 References 272 Further Reading 272 13 Simulation and optimisation of synthesis, design and operation of cogeneration systems 273 Christos A. Frangopoulos 13.1 Introduction to simulation and optimisation of cogeneration systems 273 13.2 Development of simulation models 273 13.3 Performance evaluation of cogeneration systems 275 13.4 Mathematical optimisation of cogeneration systems 276 13.4.1 Definition of optimisation 276 13.4.2 The need and importance of optimisation in cogeneration 276 13.4.3 Levels of optimisation 277 13.4.4 The role of time in optimisation of cogeneration systems 278 13.4.5 Formulation and solution methods of the static optimisation problem 279 13.4.6 Formulation and solution methods of the dynamic optimisation problem 284 13.4.7 On-line and off-line operation optimisation of cogeneration systems 287 13.4.8 Sensitivity analysis 288 13.5 Optimisation examples 289 References 309 14 Examples of cogeneration projects 313 Costas G. Theofylaktos 14.1 Introduction 313 14.2 Cogeneration in district heating 313 14.2.1 The Siekierki CHP plant, Warsaw, Poland 313 14.2.2 The Ziepniekkalns CHP plant, Riga, Latvia 314 14.3 Industrial cogeneration plants 314 14.3.1 Cogeneration in the pulp and paper industry: The UIPSA CHP plant, La Pobla de Claramunt, Barcelona 314 14.3.2 Cogeneration in the primary metal industry: The Aughinish Alumina CHP plant, Askeaton, Limerick, Ireland 315 14.4 Cogeneration in the commercial (building) sector 316 14.4.1 CHP plant in Hospital Central de la Defensa ‘‘Gomez Ulla,’’ Madrid, Spain 316 14.4.2 ‘‘Hypo Alpe Adria’’ Trigeneration System, Tavagnacco, Italy 317 14.4.3 Micro-CHP plant in De Clare Court, Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire, UK 318 14.5 Cogeneration in the agricultural sector 318 14.5.1 The Agritex Energy S.A. CHP plant, Alexandria, Greece 318 References 319 15 Research and development on cogeneration 321 Christos A. Frangopoulos 15.1 Introduction 321 15.2 Advancements in cogeneration technologies 321 15.2.1 Steam systems 321 15.2.2 Combined cycles 321 15.2.3 Organic Rankine cycles 322 15.2.4 Fuel cells and hybrid systems 322 15.2.5 Thermoelectric generators 322 15.2.6 Nuclear plants 322 15.3 Cogeneration and renewable energy 323 15.3.1 Biomass 323 15.3.2 Solar energy 323 15.3.3 Geothermal energy 324 15.4 Storage of thermal and electric energy 324 15.4.1 Storage of thermal energy 324 15.4.2 Storage of electric energy 324 15.5 Reduction of emissions 325 References 325 16 Summary and conclusions 329 Christos A. Frangopoulos Index 333